Ethics Awareness Inventory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Ethics Awareness Inventory - Essay Example 1987. pp192-193). In the modern context, an individual's decision would be accepted as ethical if the person has taken all impacting factors into account and considered all those people who would be impacted by the decision. Given the modern complexity of organizational & social systems, it is practically impossible to take a decision that doesn't impact anyone negatively. Hence, all such decisions that are taken in the favor of the larger part of the mass are normally treated as ethical. Overall, the Ethical Decision making orientation of an individual can be judged by the Ethics Awareness Inventory Profile that requires answering a series of questions by assigning the "level of agreement" that are useful in identifying the inclination of an individual towards the four measurable parameters of Ethical Decision Making - Character, Obligation, Results and Equity. In this paper, I present a brief on these four parameters, my own Ethics Awareness Inventory and an ethical challenge that I faced in the pa st at my workplace. [The Williams Institute for Ethics and Management - EAI. (2008)] The Ethics Awareness Inventory takes into account the Ethical orientation... ory takes into account the Ethical orientation of an individual towards four measurable parameters - Character, Obligation, Results and Equity (CORE). The measurements are carried out through a questionnaire that asks the individual to vote at a certain level of agreement against the questions asked - ranging between the extremes of strong disagreement to strong agreement. The orientation against the four parameters is defined as below: Ethics Orientation towards Character - An individual who gives high value to excellent moral principles, integrity, honesty and behavior Ethics Orientation towards Obligation - An individual who gives high value to loyalty towards an individual or organization by demonstrating high levels of responsibility Ethics Orientation towards Results - An individual who gives high value to the results of a decision and hence thinks through every aspect of the impact of the decision on everyone involved Ethics Orientation towards Equity - An individual who gives high value to his/her equity in a decision and believe that beliefs of right or wrong should be changed based on circumstances in order to extract the best benefits out of them. [The Williams Institute for Ethics and Management - EAI. (2008)] My Ethics Awareness Inventory: My Ethics Awareness Inventory assessed against the on-line questions at the portal of Williams Institute of Ethics and Management reveals that my Ethics Awareness profile is more aligned towards Character & Obligation and Least aligned towards Results & Equity. When I map the results with my own thought process, I realize that I have been giving highest emphasis to moral excellence and loyalty to my employer against results & equity. I have never bothered about the results of my decision as long as I was convinced

Generals Die in Bed - Plot Essay Example for Free

Generals Die in Bed Plot Essay When he thought war contained glory and glamour, he finds himself wrong when his comrades start to die, beginning with Brown. A while later, he is emotionally affected when he kills a German with his bayonet. His emotional status worsens when another of his friend dies. The narrator then goes on leave for 10 days in England, where a prostitute makes him forget about the war. When he comes back, an attempt to raid the Germans takes place where the rest of his friends, except Broadbent dies. The general tells the new team that the Germans sank a hospital ship, and organizes another raid, this time to kill everyone. The narrator has wounded his foot, and discover that Broadbent was mortally wounded too. Broadbent’s leg is hanging by a string of flesh, but then dies by blood loss. Then the war is over. The recruits are told that the general lied, the Germans didn’t sink a hospital ship. It was a ship filled with weapons. He then realizes war is basically a chess game for the generals, and the soldiers are just young boys, listening to the orders, with meaningless ideals Wikipedia

Who Were The Mesopotamians Religion Essay

Who Were The Mesopotamians Religion Essay The transition from the nomadic hunter-gatherers to the more sedentary farmers brought about some of the first serious thinkers in the world. This is how it started for the Mesopotamians, the transition from traveling around in search of food to settling down on the banks of a river. Because of their location they became the first river-valley civilization which is why Mesopotamia was so aptly named as so, it meaning the land between rivers those rivers being the Tigris and Euphrates. Their new sedentary gave them time to not only think but also to explore subjects such as mythology, religion as well as advances in technology. Because of this, these people could live in one place and build what we call a civilization. These people would multiply, build, create new beliefs, be conquered, made into slaves and eventually pass their beliefs on to others with some form of writing. This marks the beginning of history, by technical definition. The next topic I will explore upon is the religion of the Mesopotamian people. The Mesopotamian Religion, also known as Assyro-Babylonian religion  [14]  involved polytheism, which is the practice of worshipping multiple gods. These gods ranged from the all-powerful to the minor and they all represented some fact or occurrence in nature and/or life. Every city had a temple that was dedicated to a god, normally one major temple per city although multiple temples did occur in one city. These temples were called ziggurats where the followers of the god to which the temple was located would congregate and even reside. For example prostitutes would gather at the temple of Ishtar, the goddess they represent in their lifestyle choice. Prayer was also a present practice as warriors might pray to one of the many war and battle gods and goddesses for victory or at least survival. The purpose of the gods was as an attempt to explain the masses of phenomena that perplexed and dumbfounded the se people. The religion of the Mesopotamian people went through four historical periods. The oldest of these periods was from 3500 B.C.E. to the time of Hammurabi  [15]  , which is about 1700 B.C.E. The religion of this period involved the worship of deities in individual groups and as society built itself up many of these individual practices melted together to provide the dominate polytheistic method of worship. The second period ranged from between 1700-1365 B.C.E. and during this period a supreme deity surfaced  [16]  . This deities name was a fertility god, a god of thunderstorms (I find it interesting that most of the times it seems that gods of thunder and/or lightning take up the post of king of the group of gods they represent) Marduk  [17]  and by getting rid of the evil dragon goddess of chaos Tiamat  [18]  . The third period was from 1365-612 B.C.E. During this time was the Assyrian period as well as the fall of Nineveh  [19]  . There is another shift , as another group falls and assimilates into the larger group which happened a lot in the Mesopotamian area, as another deity takes place as supreme rather than Marduk. This deities name was Ashur  [20]  , a god of the sun. Ishtar remained the most important female deity throughout these three periods (which im sure has nothing to do with the fact that she was the goddess of prostitution). The fourth and final period started with the reign of Nabopolassar  [21]  (625-605 B.C.E.) and came to an end with Cyruss  [22]  conquest of Babylon in 539 B.C.E. who increased his dedicated policy of religious freedom and returned many plundered religious relics back to their rightful places  [23]  . Rituals involving religion included sacrifices and burnt offerings which could include the best of their crop, herd, as well as the enemies the people may have overcome. Rituals might have also been practices that related to the god or goddess that the respective group was worshiping . For instance, if a group worshiped Ishtar, to show their devotion they may become prostitutes and therefore practice prostitution in an attempt to glorify their chosen goddess and maybe to acquire their blessings or favor. The holidays gave people other reasons to worship the all mighty gods and goddesss of the Mesopotamian area. These holidays included important birthdays, passing of the seasons, and days of momentous occurrence such as the victorious conclusion of a long and epic battle. The final topic of my discussion is the topic based on the various technologies brought about in Mesopotamia. Since this was one of the very first civilizations to come into existence it brought about many of the tools that were essential to survival in their new sedentary lifestyle as well as building procedures. The first thing that I would like to mention is a process that is used to prevent damaging floods, a process that is still used today; the use of levees. Levees are depressions built along the bases of rivers or lakes that potentially raises the total potential volume a river or lake may retain without over flowing. Their strength depended completely on its weakest point, meaning if that particular point were to be damaged or completely destroyed then the whole structure would follow. Levees were basically piles of earth surrounding the designated area of containment, though today we use concrete and other materials to accomplish similar means. Due to these structures peopl e no longer feared the yearly floods of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers to the same extent as previously and another effect of the containment was a more sable distribution of irrigation resulting in greater amounts of food. Architecture is next with the structure in discussion being the momentous ziggurats, which were temples similar to those of the pyramids in ancient Egypt. They were made with dried bricks of mud which really was a combination of limestone rock earth and water, a loose relative of concrete. Now I will discuss tools and weapons, remember though that all weapons were tools until they were used to inflict purposeful harm on another being. The tools that were brought about her basically encompass most all tools present in many farming and cultivating professions. These tools included sickles, hoes, axes, hammers and many more. The major weapons used included swords, spears, maces, bow and arrows as well as shields. Most of all of the tools were manufactured using the practice of smelting to combine tin and copper to create bronze and wooden handles on which the metal pieces were attached. Machines that appeared in this time era included the plow, wheel and axel as well as the pulley and lever. This concludes my term paper on the mythology, religion and technology present in the Mesopotamian civilization. It was the spark of civilization that we can thank for its contribution to modern day society, because it was the starting point in a new order of operations in the way the world works and would be the first building block in the expansion of a sedentary life style in opposition to the previous nomadic way of life. Gilgamesh. Welcome to MYTHHOME:Mythology Site. Web. 13 Nov. 2010. . Ninsun | Goddess A Day. Goddess A Day My Quest for the Ten Thousand Names of the Goddess. Web. 13 Nov. 2010. . Midnight, By. Lugalbanda Epic. Bible and History. Web. 13 Nov. 2010. . Ishtar. Encyclopedia Mythica: Mythology, Folklore, and Religion. Web. 13 Nov. 2010. . Mitchell, Stephen. Gilgamesh: a New English Version. New York: Free, 2004. Print. Humbaba. Picture Books by Dandi Palmer. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Enlil. Encyclopedia Mythica: Mythology, Folklore, and Religion. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Shamash (Mesopotamian God) Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Encyclopedia Britannica Online Encyclopedia. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven. Bible and History. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Anu. Encyclopedia Mythica: Mythology, Folklore, and Religion. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Utnapishtim. Encyclopedia Mythica: Mythology, Folklore, and Religion. Web. 26 Nov. 2010. . Mesopotamian Religion New World Encyclopedia. Info:Main Page New World Encyclopedia. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Hammurabi of Babylon History for Kids! Kidipede History for Kids Homework Help for Middle School. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . The Myth of Marduk, How Marduk Became King of All the Gods. Ancient Mesopotamia for Kids. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Tiamat Mesopotamian Mythology Ancinet-Mythology.com. Ancient Mythology: Greek, Norse, Egyptian and More Ancinet-Mythology.com. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Mesopotamia Fun Facts and Information. Fun Trivia Quizzes Worlds Largest Trivia and Quiz Site! Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Ancient Babylonia Nabopolassar. Bible History Online Images and Resources for Biblical History. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Sorat, By Cyrus. Cyrus The Great. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. . Mythology | Define Mythology at Dictionary.com. Dictionary.com | Find the Meanings and Definitions of Words at Dictionary.com. Web. 05 Dec. 2010. .

The Affordable Care Acts Long Road to Political Reality Essay

The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act is the first health-care reform to pass Congress that will attempt to provide health insurance to all American citizens. It is not the first time that a health-care reform of this magnitude has been attempted. Previous attempts at health-care reform were not successful. The passage of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act was certain only at the 11th hour after much discussion and compromise between different factions within the government and private sector. President Clinton had argued during his 1992 presidential campaign that health-care reform was needed. At the time, 37 million Americans were without health insurance. He also pointed to the fact that the United States was the only modernized democracy that did not provide universal health-care coverage for its citizens. On September 22, 1993, President Clinton gave his kick-off speech to Congress on his proposed health-care reform. The reform included a mandate for employers to provide health insurance to all employees. These insurance plans would be offered through a regulated marketplace. The proposed reform was considered a great success by Democrats in Congress and in public opinion polls. However, by spring 1994 the proposed reform has been labeled as â€Å"too large, too complex, too costly, and too much government (Pfiffner).† Public opinion, which was fundamental to this legislation, had begun to shift. Although there was public consensus that the United States health-care system needed to be overhauled, there was no consensus on what needed to be done to fix it. The reform, ultimately, did not pass in Congress. Several factors were pointed to as causes for its failure. Along with the complexity... ... References One Hundred Eleventh Congress of the United States of America. (n.d.). The Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act. Retrieved 9 12, 2013, from http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/BILLS-111hr3590enr/pdf/BILLS-111hr3590enr.pdf Pfiffner, J. P. (n.d.). President Clinton's Health Care Reform Proposals of 1994. Retrieved from http://www.thepresidency.org/storage/documents/President_Clintons_Health_Care_Reform_Proposals.pdf United States Department of Labor. (n.d.). Affordable Care Act. Retrieved 9 12, 2013, from United States Department of Labor: http://www.dol.gov/ebsa/healthreform/ US Department of Health & Human Services. (n.d.). Key Features of the Affordable Care Act By Year. Retrieved 9 12, 2013, from HHS.gov/HealthCare: hhs.gov/healthcare/facts/timeline/timeline-text.html Washington Post. (2010). LandMark. New York: PublicAffairs.

Ancient Theatres in Jerash Essay

Modern technology has changed matters in documentation significantly and promises to continue to bring change. This paper attempts to present:1-How should we understand documentation of archaeological Sites, historic buildings and monuments according to their particularities, categories, types, components of documentation, taking into account the internationally agreed standards for the documentation of the cultural heritage. 2- The potential of the application of 3D laser Scanner and Photomodeler in documentation of the immovable cultural heritage. As a case study the ancient theatres of Jerash (the Southern and the Northern) will be presented. While the purpose of using different methods of documentation is to make comparison comparison of the advantages ,disadvantages ,the accuracy of the traditional method – total station –, 3D scanner method, and Photomodeler method. 1. INTRODUCTION As cultural heritage is a unique expression of human achievement, and since this cultural heritage is continuously at risk, documentation is one of the principal ways available to give meaning, understanding, definition and recognition of the values of the cultural heritage. As such it constitutes an important basis of orientation for subsequent restoration and maintenance measures. Furthermore all interventions acquire the character of evidence themselves and therefore, have to be documented. Article 16 of the Venice Charter emphasizes that in all works of preservation or excavation, there should always be precise documentation in the form of analytical and critical reports, illustrated with drawings and photographs. Every stage of the work, including technical and formal features identified during the course of the work, should be included. This record should be placed in the archives of a public institution and made available to research workers. It is recommended that the report should be published. Thus documenting the Cultural Heritage not only describes the context in which the materials were found, and their relationship in space and time to geological deposits and large architectural features, but also as monitoring of the remains of past human activities. The documentation process, which may be undertaken as an aid to various CRM activities, such as protection, identification, monitoring, interpretation, registration of stolen cultural objects, can benefit tremendously from various modern techniques that are available to us nowadays. (graphic documentation) Techniques based on conventional surveying to produce plans, elevations, and architectural details. Photographic e.g. photography, rectified photography,computer-rectified photography, photogrammetry, and 3D laser scanner. The photographical documentation should provide information on the important condition of a monument, i.e. before, during, and after restoration. 3. INTERNATIONAL CORE DATA INDEX There are three internationally agreed standards for the documentation of the cultural heritage: a) The Core Data Index to Historic Buildings and Monuments of the Architectural Heritage (1992), b) The Core Data Standard for Archaeological Sites and Monuments (1995), and c) The Object ID (1997) which was developed to provide an international standard for the information needed to identify cultural objects, in response to the threat posed by the illicit trade in the movable heritage. The evaluation of the documentation process can be carried out by comparison with such standards. Other considerations could be related to the particularity of the monument, the cost, the ability to benefit from modern digital techniques and the success in acting as a historical record of human activities. 4. ANCIENT THEATRES OF JERASH Few ancient towns are as well preserved and as complete as Jerash, a city complex that once was a thriving commercial zone and part of the Decapolis. Built in the 2nd century BC the city was conquered in 63 BC by the Roman General Pompey. The grand theatres and spacious public squares, plazas and baths, the Roman Cardo running 700 meters north from the Oval Plaza and pass sky-piercing columns flanking from both sides in Jerash make this site truly an archaeological park. 4.1 The Southern Theatre in Jerash The southern theater (Exterior Diameter 70.5m) today is one of the most impressive of Jerash’s public building. Begun at the end of the 1st century AD (during the reign of Domitian) and completed in the early 2nd century. On its completion, it became one of the most splendid civic monuments in the 2. CATEGORIES AND COMPONENTS OF DOCUMENTATION Regardless of the location of the activity, it type or philosophy of art and historical conservation, the documentation should address three questions: what it is, where it is, and when! There are three Categories and Components of Documentation: Written: should comprise an architectural description, the state of preservation , an interpretation of the results of all tests and analyses, a summary of the results of all investigations, and a report on the interventions executed. Non-photographic ________CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium, 26 September – 01 October, 2005, Torino, Italy________ developing city and certainly the finest of its type in the whole province. The cavea of the auditorium was divided into two sections, with a wide terrace (diazoma) describing the full half circle between them. The lower half was built into the side of the hill. While the top half was built above it. Although the auditorium has survived remarkably well, the top rows of seats are missing, and one cannot be sure of the exact original number.(Figure. 1) Figure. 2 Plan of the Northern Theatre The theatre itself probably had two main phases during its lifetime. It was dedicated, and probably completed, in AD 64/65. It was a small, probably, theatre used for poetry readings, meetings or more modest performances than the large dramatic events that would have taken place in the city’s larger Southern Theatre. The theatre may also have been the city council’s meeting hall. It was- modified several times and probably enlarged in the first quarter of the 3rd century. It finally went out of use as a theatre by the 5th to 6th centuries. On some of the seats of the lower cevea are inscribed in Greek the names of the voting tribes (phylai) that were represented in the bouleutirium, or city council except one tribe named after the Roman Emperor Hadrian, the others are named after Olympian gods. the theatre was also used as a bouleuterion, or city council meeting-hall. The theatre’s expansion in the first quarter of the3rd century AD included the addition of eight rows of seats, doubling the theatre’s capacity to around 1600 people. The three best preserved external vomitoria, at the western end of the upper auditorium, show their original construction of three independent, semicircular arches rising towards the exterior with evidence of large wooden doors that could have been opened or closed to control access to the theatre. The original scaena wall, facing the audience from behind the stage, was dismantled and replaced by a more complex scaena composed of two parallel wal1s. The elaborate scaenae frons was probably two storeys high, and was adorned with colored marble, free-standing Corinthian columns and broken entablatures, behind which were semicircular niches decorated with mosaics. Figure. 1 Plan of the Southern Theatre The front of the stage was divided into four sections with pedestals between them. Each section was decorated with a central pedimental niche flanked by arched niches .These elaborate architectural compositions are a common feature of Roman theatres. The front of the stage is decorated with pediment and arched niches. The wall rising behind the stage, the Scaenae Frons is pierced by three doors used by the performers to enter and exit the stage from the sides. The Scaenae Frons would have had second storey repeating most of the decorative and architectural elements of the lower level. Much of the outer (north) wall of the theater is a modern reconstruction. The rebuilding, however, of the rear wall behind the scaenae frons must be regretted, for we do not know what this wall was like and such suspect `restorations` run the risk of endangering the validity of the whole structure; for how can one be sure what is genuine and what is not? Happily, the greater part of the theatre is completely genuine. (Browning. Iain/ Jerash and the Decapolis) 4.2 The Northern Theatre The North Theatre complex is composed of the North Theatre (Exterior Diameter 43, 47m, orchestra Diameter 14,33m) itself and a ‘plaza’ in front of it . A great deal smaller than the South Theatre, its orientation is determined by the northern decumanus upon which it opens and from which it is approached. The cavea shows the usual arrangement of four cunei in the lower half, and eight in the upper half .At the top of the upper section of the cavea there was scarcely room for passageway and colonnade.( Figure. 2 ) 5. METHODS OF DOCUMENTATION IN JERASH THEATRES The purpose of using different Methods of documentation of the Southern and Northern Jerash theatres is to make comparison of the advantages ,disadvantages ,the accuracy of the traditional recording method, 3D scanner, and PhotoModeler. Accuracy is the correctness of the measurement, regardless of its precision. Precision refers to the fineness of measured distinctions. Results of the case studies are presented and compared. The aim is to give (mostly nongeodetic) users recommendations, which method is suited best for what kind of application, or even if a combination of 3D scanning and PhotoModeler is advisable. Criteria like quality of the results, amount of cost and time, required equipment and occurring problems are to be considered. To investigate the advantages, disadvantages and ________CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium, 26 September – 01 October, 2005, Torino, Italy________ the accuracy of these methods, we carried out some case studies for the two theatres. Different typical objects were chosen and characteristically parts of them were recorded by tape, total station, PhotoModeler and 3D scanning. In this research project, we have installed a number of different test targets that allow an investigation in the quality of points recorded by laser scanners and the geometric models derived from the point clouds. 5.1 By using Total Station and AutoCAD Software: Conceptually, total stations are different from most measuring systems used by archaeologists because they are effective over a great range of scales and have an accuracy that is unusual in our experience. Limits on drawing precision that were once inherent in the use of scaled drawings have been removed by CAD systems. For example, it might be measuring the position of a point 1 km away from the total station and be accurate at least to the centimeter. This is equivalent to the use a tape to measure the distance to an object a meter away with .01 mm accuracy. The total station can be used to measure archaeological structures during an excavation. The precision with which a CAD system can maintain coordinates depends on the internal data structure chosen, but all standard CAD systems maintain coordinates at levels of precision beyond the scholar’s capacity to measure. A surveyor collecting data using preelectronic techniques could have used the tape to take the measurements, together with cross section for elevation information and quantity estimates. Or, the survey could have been completed using such polar techniques as transit or theodolite/EDM surveys. Electronic data collection with total station instruments permits the quick acquisition of a large amount of field data, together with the efficient and error-free transfer of the data to a computer. Once in the computer, the field data can be edited and analyzed for completeness of coverage and accuracy. For the documentation of the Southern theatre and the Northern theatre of Jerash more than 900 points were taken using the total station (Skoia). Tape measurement was conducted to record some of the dimensions of the theatre (the scene and some architectural details). The goal of these measurements was to collect more field dimensional measurement and other detail measurement for the documentation of the theatres. Full documentation for the Southern theatre of Jerash 2D and 3D was finalized with 2D documentation and reconstruction for the Northern theatre of Jerash. 5.2 By using PhotoModeler: While photogrammetry and metric surveying techniques can be suitable for archaeological sites and buildings, they present certain disadvantages for smaller and more complex objects. PhotoModeler is a windows software program that helps to extract measurements and 3D models from photographs. By using cameras as an input device, photomodeler is capable to extract accurate measurements and details. It is based on using several photos ( Figure 4 ) from different angles with known focal length, using control points ( Figure. 5 ). PhotoModeler can create 3D models and export the measured data as a dxf file. ADVANTAGES Contains information about surface detail (e.g. weathering patterns).Photographs are easier to interpret and recognize than drawing. DISADVANTAGES Essential high-skilled photographers.The enlargement of images should do accurately.Photographic format (analogue). PhotoModeler is one of the methods we used in documenting, measuring, and modeling the scene of the Southern theatre in Jerash. Several selected photos taken from slightly different positions were shot using digital camera. For calibration, some 3D points of the scene were obtained. For this purpose a modern integrated total station model Sokkia to collect more than 50 points to record the 3D points. These points were carefully chosen to be very well distributed on the scene in order to use them as GCPs (Ground Control Points). ( Figure. 5 ) With these data, we produce a 3D model, Orthorectified images (Photogrammetry) and measurements (x, y, z) or lengths for the stage of the Southern theatre of Jerash. For more accuracy we produced a detailed model for the scene features- the left Gate(Figure. 3 ) and then combined these detailed models together to produce the scene of the theatre. Figure 4. Camera Stations to produce a 3D Model for the the left Gate of the stage of Jerash Southern Theatre Figure 3 3D Model for the left Gate of the scene of Jerash Southern Theatre. ________CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium, 26 September – 01 October, 2005, Torino, Italy________ first implementation of the new technology seems to be very useful and promising. The main advantage of scanning is the fast and direct collection of large numbers of surface object points. The measurement process needs no attendance except for the set-up required when establishing a new viewpoint. The huge number of records formed a nice cloud of points, which very precisely matches the true 3D shape of the interested object (in our case the cavea and the scene of the two theatres). In the office there are two sophisticated softwared, which deal with the collected cloud of points. One of the software can import the clouds and get a nice three model of the object. The other software can also get the 3D model and rectify the model to get the measurements of the object. The final result can be exported to CAD software like Auto Cad or Micro Station. A couple of Million of 3D points were captured from different points of view. In addition to the 3D points, a set of 2D images were also been taken. In the Southern theater three stations were sat up to capture points of the theater from different angles of view as shown in (Figures 6, 7, 9). In the north theatre we used three stations to cover the whole theater and two stations to capture the surrounding area . All these stations and the cloud of points are shown in (Figures 8, 10). Figure 4. Several photos from different angles with known focal length, using control points for the Scine of the Southern theatre 5.3 By using 3D scanner. Laser scanning technology with its automated data capture capabilities is bringing new perspectives and can satisfy most requirements of this type of applications. 3D laser scanning represents today the most advanced technology available for measuring and documenting objects. Our scanner can measure on average about 1000 points per second. Terrestrial laser scanning technology is based on active range sensors measuring directly the distance between the sensor and points over the surveyed object. Objects that can be documented by 3D scanning, range from the sizes of coins or potsherds to whole cultural landscapes. Traditional heritage recording methods like close range photogrammetry are not suitable for all kinds of objects. Particularly when the objects have very irregular surfaces and not a clearly defined structure, scanning wi ll probably yield better results than photogrammetry. In contrast to photogrammetry 3D scanners directly produce a huge number of 3D points. The resulting point cloud can be used to extract CAD elements or – by using point triangulation to create a 3D surface model. Additionally, images can be mapped onto the model to get a virtual copy of the real object. While both photogrammetric and laser scanning techniques can deliver similar type of products the end users are accustomed to have, other supplementary data such as line drawings, DTM etc., A main advantage as compared to close range photogrammetry is the availability of near real time 3D coordinates for irregular surfaces. The striking capability of collecting hundreds or even thousands of points per second is praised by producers and operators. On the other hand, questions concerning the quality and accuracy of the recorded points receive little attention. Specifications stated by the producers are not comparable. The main difference between scanning and photogrammetry is obvious: While photogrammetric surveying is an indirect data acquisition method (images are needed before measurements can be executed), scanning produces 3D points directly. As geodetic surveying instruments, scanners cannot be used when the object or the observation platform is moving. In these cases, photogrammetric images, which can be acquired with very short exposure times, are the only means of metric documentation. Although surveyors tend to see accuracy as a predominant consideration when comparing measuring equipment, for the practical use there are numerous other characteristics which may be decisive under certain project pre-conditions. Four stages for doing the work: scanning in the field, registration ,segmentation, modeling . To build up a precise 3D model of the South theatre and the North theatre we used the 3D laser scanner model †GS100 MENSI†. The results we’ve obtained were very precise and the Figure 6. Mesh part of the Scene and the cavea of the Southern Theatre Figure 7. Cloud Points of the Scene of the Southern Theater ________CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium, 26 September – 01 October, 2005, Torino, Italy________ ADVANTAGES Very precise measurements. A solution in situations where 3D measurement by other means may be difficult. Quick in data capture. On-sitescanning is possible. DISADVANTAGES Very expensive. Practical limits on the object size and height. May have difficulties on some material surfaces. May have difficulties on some Material surfaces Editing the data to produce meaningful results may be difficult. other applications. The software has the ability to export the final models and solids to Auto Cad using the solid SAD converter. 2) Real Works Survey. Provides the user a set of tools for processing 3D point clouds and 2D images in order to obtain the necessary information. Generally, this processing can be divided into two modes: the Registration mode and the Office Survey mode. During the registration mode we register several scans simultaneously by using data captured during target scanning. Several test fields using white spheres as targets have been installed to get information about the accuracy of distances in scanning direction and across. We also use the Geo Referencing tool to put the scanned data into a known coordinate system. During the office survey mode, we segment the point clouds into logical parts. We also extract measurements or different types of 2D drawings from the point clouds. These extracted results were exported into CAD systems. 6. LASER SCANNER DATA ACQUISITION The laser scanner MENSI GS100 was used in this project and scanning was performed from various positions so that the full coverage of the surface will be achieved with sufficient overlapping (Fig. 10 ). The specific scanner has a recommended range of 2-100 , with optimal range of m.. The system’s horizontal and vertical field of view is 60 degrees. Reflective targets distributed over the site allowed the easy registration of the scans during data processing. Although the laser scanning software provides direct and immediate access to the scan data by visually inspecting the point cloud in situ to identify possible problem areas in the data sets, it proved that some parts of the site were excluded and larger overlap was required for the complete merging of all scans. Figure 10. North theatre; Overlapping areas and gaps Starting with the question of accuracy, it must be understood that total stations have built-in limits on precision that are often ignored and that affect ultimate accuracy. Accuracy refers to the agreement of a value with the â€Å"true† value. Whereas the problem was once measuring as precisely as possible or as precisely as a scaled drawing could display, the problem is now to measure and record as precisely as required for the particular project. A comparative evaluation of the techniques in the data capture and modeling of the northern gate of the Southern theatre is shown and measurement results of the Tape measurement, PhotoModeler, 3D Laser Scanner – GS 100 MENSI measurement are presented in table 1 Figure 8. Mesh view of the North theatre Figure 11. Cloud Points of the Cevea of the southern Theatre Figure 9. Mesh part of the northern gate of the Southern Theatre The office work included the use of two software packages: 1) 3Dipsos. Sophisticated software used to reconstruct 3D models from large sets of point cloud data captured by a 3D laser scanner. It is an intermediate data processing application between scanning and the use of environments reconstructed in ________CIPA 2005 XX International Symposium, 26 September – 01 October, 2005, Torino, Italy________ to 90 degrees as possible, 4. Ensure that all points appear on three or more photographs, 5. Ensure all point and line markings on the images are precise, and do not guess at a point location if it cannot be seen, is not distinct, is fuzzy or is hidden by some other object. Nevertheless, the precision supplied by total stations or photogrammetry software and recorded in CAD models must not exceed the limits on accuracy of the total system and must be appropriate for the job at hand. As already stated, every project has its own particularity. Those needs should be carefully determined, explicitly stated, and properly met by the survey methods and procedures. Laser scanning provides dense 3D information that can be implemented for the DEM and also for the determination of the ground coordinates of presignalized control points. The large sets of data obtained are an impediment to virtual computer visualization. Often it is very difficult to deal with the data without large RAM memory of the order of two GB. 7. CONCLUDING REMARKS The documentation of the Jerash theatre was implemented by a combination of photogrammetry and 3D laser scanning. Generally:†¢ Hand survey is labor intensive specially in the field. †¢ Computer rectified photography is the simplest method of producing drawings. Metric cameras are no longer needed and can be substituted for with simple digital cameras. †¢ The advantage of using photogrammetry is its speed and accuracy, especially over large and complex structures. †¢ Cost will inevitably be one of the deciding factors in choosing between different recording methods, but should not be used to decide the level of survey. The effort needed to get accurate and detailed DEM models by means of photogrammetric procedures only, is considerably high. There are limits on precision based upon a different group of contributing factors, lens distortion, precision of lens focal length measurements, size of photos used. PhotoModeler is an elegant measurement method used in documentation of cultural heritage applications. The shortfalls of this method, mainly associated with limited geometry of areas in the shadow of the object, are more prominent when the object is a large complex form. However its use does not involve large costs or sophisticated equipment, as only a calibrated digital camera is needed. The recent emergence of terrestrial laser scanning has shown that it has the potential to be of major value to the cultural heritage recording professionals. While data collection in this project using the PhotoModeler and Laser scanning methods indicated a small gain in time over laser scanning, the main advantage is the fully automated data capturing process using terrestrial laser scanning. Generally, laser scanning requires viewing the surveyed object from several viewpoints to resolve shadows and occlusions. To achieve the best accuracy in PhotoModeler: 1. Ensure that a well-calibrated camera is used for the project, 2. Use photos with good resolution. 3. Ensure that the angle between the camera stations is as close John Coles,† The Site Record and Publication† Conservation on Archaeological Excavations, Ed.N.P. Sanley Price, ICCROM, pp.59-69, Rome, 1995 Photogrammetric Measurement, Object Modeling and Documentation in Architecture and Industry, Ed. Petros Patias, ISPRS, VOol.XXXII, Thessaloniki, 1999 Documenting the Cultural Heritage Edited by Robin Thornes and John Bold ,Getty Information Institute,1998 MENSI 2001: Mensi training materials, German training course, May 2001. WWW 2001: An extensive collection of links to laser scanner producers and reports about applications in cultural heritage is maintained by the authors at http://scanning.fh-mainz.de -www.international.icomos.org/recording_fre.htm Browning.Iain/ Jerash and the Decapolis/ Chatto Windus.London/ 1982/ (Ds154.9 G47 B76 1982). and Carl H.Kraeling/ Gerasa City of the Decapolis/ Yale University/ Published by the American Schools of Oriental Research/ New Haven, Connecticut/1938. W. Boehler, M. Bordas Vicent, A. Marbs ( Investigatgn Laser Scanner Accuracy , The XIXth CIPA Symposium at Antalya, TURKEY, 2003. Harrison Eiteljorg, How Should We Measure † an Ancient Structure?†, Nexus Network Journal, vol. 4,no.4(Autumn2002),http://www.nexusjournal.com/Eiteljorg.ht ml) Boehler, W. , Heinz, G., Marbs, A. The Potential of NonContact Close Range Laser Scanners for Culture Heritage Recording,CIPA Working Group VI)2001.

World Regional Geography North America

World Regional Geography North America Map comparisons The Canadian population is adhered to the South owing to numerous reasons that trace back to the ancient migration patterns, industrial revolution, climatic conditions, and urbanization. As highlighted in the introductory statement, the spatial population pattern of Canada is skewed towards the South Eastern region partly because of early migration pattern.Advertising We will write a custom assessment sample on World Regional Geography: North America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More This region represents the first habitat of European immigrants (1942) who owe their reasons for the mass exodus to several push and pull factors that include fertile land and favorable climate among others. As such, with enough human resource and technical know-how the region evolved along two fronts simultaneously; becoming industrialized and urbanized. To this effect, the then cities within this place were well served with communication networks inform of railways and roads, and teeming with activities consequently burgeoning and hence attracted more and more people as opposed to other regions of Canada (Schaefer 302). Moreover, the harsh climatic conditions of the North (humid and cold climate with short cool summers) are the reasons why the South dwarfs the North in population density. The spatial population distribution of North America is related to the physiographic pattern of the region to a greater extend. On comparing the maps in figures 3-2 and 3-19 a correlation between the two can be drawn. On observing the land terrain along latitude 400 as portrayed in figure 3-2 it is apparent that majority of the population reside at the lowlands below 2500 meters, and a few along the sea shores. With a wide area of land on the West characterized by high altitudes then it follows that it exhibits sparse population. Thus, a majority of the population is biased towards the East. The population is avoiding highlands in favor of plain lowlands. From the dispersal patterns as exhibited by figure 3-7 it is apparent that from the 19th to 20th century the population has been moving towards high atitude regions from the sea shores. This is evident by the increase in population in most Central States of Kansas, Missouri and Oklahoma among others. The population moves from the Eastern States and coastal States of New Jersey and Delaware among others.Advertising Looking for assessment on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More On observing figure 3-8 of North American Manufacturing belt it is evident that most industries are located towards North East and Eastern region of the US. On comparison to figure 3-14 of fossil fuel deposits it is evident that the two are correlated. The major manufacturing belts fall within the major fossil fuel reserves vital in running these industries at reduced running costs. Moreover, the belt falls within regions rich in industrial raw materials i.e. the corn and cotton belts among others. To boost its growth the region is served with international harbors that are open to Europe and the rest of the World. Moreover, the large population provides a ready market to already finished products (MacLeod 690). Figure 3-14 represents the major fossil energy reserves of North America. There are three major fossil energy reserves with coal and gas taking a lions share relative to oil. The major States that produce coal include: Montana, North Dakota, Wyoming, Idaho and Utah. On the other hand, the major states producing coal include: Arkansas, Missouri, Iowa, Louisiana, Indiana, Ohio, Kentucky, West Virginia, Mississippi and Michigan. Finally, the major states with oil reserves are Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma and Michigan (Kimble 602). Map 1: North America’s physical geography Map2: The United States and the major concentrations of minority populationsAdvertising We will w rite a custom assessment sample on World Regional Geography: North America specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Map 3: United States Major Cities and Economic Regions KEY: A-Silicon valley B-Atlantic Seaboard MegalopolisAdvertising Looking for assessment on geography? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More C-Corn Belt D-Main Street Conurbation E-Pacific Hinge F-Dairy Belt G-Alaska North Slope H-Research Triangle I- Boundary between Arid and Humid America. Kimble, Hebert. â€Å"The Inadequacy of the Regional Concept† London Essays in Geography 2.17 (1951): 601-617. Print. MacLeod, George, and Jones Mother. â€Å"Renewing The Geography of Regions.† Environment and Planning 16.9 (2001): 669-706. Print. Schaefer, Frankline. â€Å"Exceptionalism in Geography: A Methodological Examination.† Annals of the Association of American Geographers 43.3 (1953): 298-305. Print.

Engr. Essay Example

Engr. Essay Example Engr. Essay Engr. Essay water, farm inputs, micro climate, environment, machines and machine related parameters for optimum production of crop and animals (Engr. A.O. Ani 2010) Over the years, as a result of the illiteracy on the part of people in the third worldâ„ ¢s nations, there has been a misconception on the difference between agriculture and farmingâ„ ¢. According to Encarta encyclopedia, Agriculture: farming, is the occupation, business, or science of cultivating the land, producing crops, and raising livestock. Some say farming refers to the growing of crops while agriculture is a general name for all farm activities including the cultivation of land for the growing of crops and rearing of animals. The misconception was due to the use of other unexplained (which were misunderstood by the uneducated individuals) agricultural terminologies like fishery, processing, and deforestation etcetera. Precision Agriculture is the application of technologies and principles to manage spatial and temporal variability associated with all aspects of agricultural production for improving production and environmental quality. The success in precision agriculture depends on the accurate assessment of the variability, its management and evaluation in space-time distribution in crop production. The agronomic success of precision agriculture has been quite convincing in crops like sugar beet, sugarcane, tea and coffee. The potential for economic, environmental and social benefits of precision agriculture is largely unrealized because the space-time distribution of crop production has not been adequately addressed. Precision agriculture is a relatively new area that combines the latest in geographic technology with cropping situations to optimize inputs, reduce waste, and generate the maximum possible yields. The technology often involves the use of GPS and remote sensing for data collection, GIS for data processing and analysis, and variable rate technology for implementing ideal models. 1.1.2 NATURAL RESOURCES VARIABILITY: Soil and landscape variability, digital elevation models, soil mapping, geostatistics, geographic information systems, microclimate, weather forecasting, remote sensing, management units, scale, etc. 1.1.3 MANAGING VARIABILITY: Sampling techniques, site-specific nutrient and crop protection chemical recommendation, crop quality, tillage, seed density, seed variety, yield mapping, remote sensing, record keeping systems, data interpretation and use, crops (corn, wheat, sugar beets, potatoes, peanut, cotton, vegetables, etc.), management scale, etc. 1.1.4 ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY: Computers, positioning systems, DGPS, machinery, tillage, planting, nutrient and crop protection implements, manure, irrigation, fustigation, yield monitor and mapping, soil physical and chemical characteristic sensors, weed/pest mapping, etc. 1.1.5 PROFITABILITY: MEY, net returns, BMPs, optimum recommendations, crop quality, technology cost, sustainability, social impacts, marketing, cooperatives, farm scale, crop type, etc. 1.1.6 ENVIRONMENT: Nutrient, crop protection chemicals, sediments, leaching, runoff, practices, field, watershed, on/off farm, artificial drainage, ground water, surface water, etc. 1.1.7 TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER: Skill needs, education, training, outreach, methods, surveys, agri-business, producers, distance education, Internet, simulations models, decision support systems, expert systems, on-farm experimentation, partnerships, quality of rural life, etc. 1.1.8 YIELD FORECASTING: Plant tissue absorbs much of the red light band and is very reflective of energy in near infrared (NIR) wavebands. The ratio of these two bands is referred to as the vegetation index (VI). The difference of red and NIR measurements divided by their sum is normalized difference VI (NDVI). For crops such as grain sorghum, production yields, leaf area index (LAI), crop height and biomass have been correlated with NDVI data obtained from multispectral images (Anderson et al, 1996). In order to get reasonably accurate yield predictions this data must be combined with input from weather models during the growing season (Moran et al, 1997). 1.1.9 MANAGEMENT DECISION SUPPORT SYSTEMS: Just having information about variability within the field doesnt solve any problems unless there is some kind of decision support system (DSS) in order to make VRT recommendations. Russo and Dantinne (Russo et al, 1997) have suggested the following steps for a DSS: 1. Identify environmental and biological states and processes in the field that can be monitored and manipulated for the betterment of crop production. 2. Choose sensors and supporting equipment to record data on these states and processes. 3. Collect, store and communicate the field-recorded data. 4. Process and manipulate the data into useful information and knowledge. 5. Present the information and knowledge in a form that can be interpreted to make decisions. Choose an action associated with a decision to change the identified state or process in a way that makes it more favorable to profitable crop production. 1.1.10 WHO IS FARMERS EDGE Farmers Edge offers a complete land management solution regardless if you are a 2000ac producer or a large corporate farm. ?   From project development to crop planning to operations and harvest management, Farmers Edge is dedicated to improving farmers land management practice by providing growers with solutions that increases their profits. Our land management solutions and services include advanced agronomy â€Å" a balance of traditional agronomy and new technology, soils analysis, carbon aggregation, traceability and in-season crop monitoring and record keeping. 1.2.0 PRECISION FARMING TECHNOLOGIES Precision farming basically depends on measurement and understanding of variability, the main components of precision farming system must address the variability. Precision farming technology enabled, information based and decision focused, the components include,(the enabling technologies) Remote Sensing (RS), Geographical Information System (GIS), Global Positioning System (GPS), Soil Testing, Yield Monitors and Variable Rate Technology. Precision farming requires the requisition, management, analysis and output of large amount of spatial and temporal data. Mobile computing systems were needed to function on the go in farming operations because desktop systems in the farm office were not sufficient. Because precision farming is concerned with spatial and temporal variability and it is information based and decision focused. It is the spatial analysis capabilities of GIS that enable precision agriculture. GPS, DGPS has greatly enabled precision farming and of great importance to pre cision farming, particularly for guidance and digital evaluation modeling position accuracies at the centimeter level are possible in DGPS receivers. Precision farming technology (PF) is designed to provide data and information to assist farmers when making site-specific management decisions. By making more informed management decisions, farmers can become more efficient, and perhaps lower costs, and become more profitable. However, little is known about how farmers use PF to make management decisions, identify production problems, and about the relative magnitude of benefits and costs of PF on individual farms. 1.2.1 The global positioning system; The global positioning system (GPS) is a network of satellites developed for and managed by the U.S. Defense Department. The GPS constellation of 24 satellites orbiting the earth, transmit precise satellite time and location information to ground receivers. The ground receiving units are able to receive this location information from several satellites at a time for use in calculating a triangulation fix thus determining the exact location of the receiver. 1.2.2 Geographical information system; A geographical information system (GIS) consists of a computer software data base system used to input, store, retrieve, analyze, and display, in map like form, spatially referenced geographical information. Fig fig.1. A GIS chart showing the network link 1.2.3 Yield monitors; Yield monitors are crop yield measuring devices installed on harvesting equipment. The yield data from the monitor is recorded and stored at regular intervals along with positional data received from the GPS unit. GIS software takes the yield data and produces yield maps. | Fig.2. a representation of a yield map on a GIS system 1.2.4 VARIABLE RATE TECHNOLOGY; Variable rate technology (VRT) consists of farm field equipment with the ability to precisely control the rate of application of crop inputs and tillage operations. Precision farming technologies have been commercially available since the early 1990s, but the pace of adoption among U.S. farmers has been modest. This study examines the relationship between the adoption of diagnostic and application techniques of precision farming and sources of information available to farmers about precision farming. The model used in the analysis accounts for sources of self-selection in the adoption process that could bias the results. Results indicate interpersonal information sources have increased adoption relative to information from the mass media, and the private sector has been the driving force behind the diffusion of precision farming. Information from crop consultants and input suppliers has had the greatest impact on the adoption of precision farming technologies. These sources likely provide the greatest technical expertise about precision farming, and thus are better equipped to ease the significant human capital requirement of precision farming t echnologies. Fig. 3. Showing an automated precision maching carrying out a variable rate command. 1.3.0GLOBAL ADOPTION OF PRECISION AGRICULTURE TECHNOLOGIES The adoption of precision agriculture technologies has been uneven, both geographically andtemporally. The economic theory of induced innovation predicts that new technologies will be developed and adopted where they make more efficient use of the scarcest productiveresources. Indeed, adoption of precision agriculture technologies has been fastest where labouris costly but land and capital are relatively less costly. Where precision agriculture is beingadopted, the uneven adoption rate is tied to normal cycles for replacing the expensivemachinery in which many precision agriculture technologies are embodied. Equipmentreplacement decisions are affected by many factors exogenous to the farm, such as bankinterest rates and commodity prices. Adoption is likely to continue in labor-scarce, land-abundant countries, with rates of adoption accelerating when commodity prices are high andinterest rates low. Although spatial precision agriculture (PA) encompasses four key information technologies, farmers tend to use it in one of two major ways. The four PA technologies include location determination (via the Global Positioning System, GPS), computerized geographicinformation systems (GIS), computer-guided controllers for variable rate application (VRA)of crop inputs, and sensing technologies for automated data collection and mapping. TheGPS and GIS technologies underpin both of the major PA practices that farmers have begunto adopt. One of these is nutrient management; it involves spatially referenced soil sampling, often linked to VRA fertilizer spreading. The other is yield monitoring, usually tied to yieldmapping. In North America adoption is emerging for variants of these, such as VRA seedingand pesticide spraying, as well as remote sensing of plant vigor (Daberkow and McBride,2000). Some farmers adopt technology while others do not, due to different reasons. Either way, the pattern of PAtechnology adoption has been uneven. Despite the rapid growth of global commerce and thewidespread availability of equipment for VRA and yield monitoring, adoption rates appear todiffer sharply from one country to another, at least based on the informal data available (Norton and Swinton, 2001). Yield monitors are being adopted rapidly in Argentina, but lessso in Brazil or in France. Site-specific fertilizer use is rare in Argentina, despite the growth ofyield monitor use (Lowenberg-DeBoer, 1999). In Malaysia, site-specific fertilization is beingapplied to rubber plantations, but not to rice fields. Even within a country such as the UnitedStates, PA adoption rates vary by a factor of ten from 11.3% of farms in the MidwesternHeartland to only 1.1% in the Southeastern Seaboard in 1998 (Daberkow and McBride,2000). In general, we observe that in favored areas adoption of yield m onitoring or VRAfertilization has surpassed 5 percent only in the United States and Canada. It would appearthat adoption rates in the 1-5 percent range (again, only for favored subregions) may pertaining Australia, Brazil, Denmark, United Kingdom, and Germany. With the exception of a fewyield monitors in South Africa and some VRA fertilization in isolated plantation agricultureenclaves, adoption of PA technologies is virtually unknown in Africa.Rate of adoption is not smoothJudging from trends observed in the United States, PA technology adoption is uneven notonly geographically, but also temporally. The uneven adoption trendcontrasts sharply with the rapid, smooth adoption of hybrid maize following its commercial introduction about 80 years ago (Griliches, 1957; Lowenberg-DeBoer, 1998). Given thepotential benefits of precision agriculture for farm profitability and environmental protection, these uneven adoption patterns may seempuzzling.Agricultural technologies can be viewed as means by which farmers seek to achieve theirproduction objectives. Farmers have many objectives, including risk management, quality oflife, and environmental stewardship. But for the majority of farmers, who rely on agriculturalincome, expected profitability is the sine qua non, they must earn enough to stay in business.In attempting to produce profitably, farmers are constrained by limited access to essential productive resources such as land, labor, equipment, buildings, and management knowledge. Two characteristics are likely to drive the adoption of PA technologies. First, considering thatthey improve the efficiency of input use in mechanized agriculture, they are likely to beadopted first in those places where input use is already relatively efficient. Second, becausethese technologies use costly capital to automate human information processing, they will bemost attractive where capital is abundant relative to management labor. 1.4 0 A BRIEF HISTORY OF WORLD PRECISION FARMING Ever since man appeared on the earth, he has been harnessing the natural resources to meet his basic requirements. Reference to soil, water and air as basic resources, their management and means to keep them pure are mentioned in the Vedas, Upanishads and in ancient Hindu literature. The phenomenal increase in population of both man and animal in the last century and fast growing industrialization and urbanization in last few decades have overstrained the natural resource base, which are getting degraded much faster than ever before. Thus, the attention of whole world is focused on how to increase production to feed the burgeoning population and the question uppermost in every ones mind is Can we produce enough food in a sustainable manner without damage to the natural resource base For over the last 15 years, precision agriculture has been practice in some parts of the world and despite its promising future, it has not yet managed to be adapted globally by farmers. To the Europeans, Precision Farming is old traditional farming in the modern way. Initially, precision farming took the form of a move away from blanket applications of inputs, increasing in sophistication as developments in technology advanced to enable variable application rates only applying fertilizer and chemicals where they are required and at the optimum rate. Generally, the adoption of precision farming has been modest in Europe as it is advancing to livestock precision application e.g. robotic milking of cattle and the possibility to determine the satisfaction rate of the beast using his mooâ„ ¢ sound. And also, the potential for using precision agriculture to address environmental, food safety, animal welfare and sustainability problems seems to be attracting political attention in Europe. Amongst all this good that have befalling upon the European system of agriculture, there are still some lapses in the southern part of Europe where only a few countries e.g. France, Sp ain, and Portugal have been very successful with breaking loose from their traditional pattern of agriculture. The Americanâ„ ¢s attitudes of doing things in a unique format have always paved a way for them around the blue globe. This is evident on their adoption of precision farming as they grow rapidly with the aim of input minimization and output maximization. Series of achievements have been made by the Americans within this few years of the emergence op precision agriculture the most striking of them all is the commissioning of a GPS system developed for and managed by the U.S. defense department. Precision farming in America has been very successful as it has been adopted by several countries especially Argentina, U.S.A., Columbia, Brazil, Chile, etcetera. Australian growers are finding practical and profitable uses for precision agriculture, but the uses differ somewhat from those common in the US. Yield monitoring is relatively common, but as in the US many yield monitors are not linked to global positioning systems (GPS). High soil testing costs have discouraged US style variable rate fertilizer and growers are searching for alternative ways to develop variable rate application (VRA) fertilizer recommendation maps. Because of severe soil compaction problems, GPS guidance for controlled traffic is considered by some to be the best starting point for precision agriculture. Asia, a world of science and technology, a place where at the mention of the word innovationâ„ ¢, one is welcomed as an ambassador of the jet age. In countries like Japan, small areas are utilized in farming by using greenhouses to plant crops and vegetables. Japanese farmers are equipped with skills in such a way that production can be done simultaneously, thus, making large production at small areas by as many farmers as possible. By this medium, the Japanese government has been able to lunch a campaign against hunger and corruption in the country. China, being the back bone of Asia technology growth as found a way to defy the might of the GPS scarcity their by reducing the problems of traffic in precision agriculture by the lunching of space satellites to manage field monitoring activities. Some great nations like Taiwan, Japan, China, Korea, and etcetera have found a way to embrace and manage precision farming for the betterment of their world. Africa being the most backward technologic-wise among all continents as just a little to show for precision farming. Some countries like South Africa and Zambia tops the chart of Nigeria precision farmers while other countries like Nigeria, Cameroon, Ghana, Kenya etcetera only applied some precision operations into mechanized farming. Precision farming as developed over the past decade, having is origin in Europe. As often the case with new technologies, this practice was taken up in the US and developed at great past. Precision farming is about to change the face of agriculture, as we know it today. Precision farming has been developed mainly in Europe (Moore 1998a). It has, however, been adapted by North American farmers in far greater numbers than in any other part of the world. Various sources show that probably around 90% of all precision farming system operates in US and Canada (Starck, 1998). 1.5.0 PRECISION FARMING IN NIGERIA Precision farming provides a new solution using a systems approach for todays agricultural issues such as the need to balance productivity with environmental concerns. It is based on advanced information technology. It includes describing and modeling variation in soils and plant species, and integrating agricultural practices to meet site-specific requirements. It aims at increased economic returns, as well as at reducing the energy input and the environmental impact of agriculture. This is very possible in Nigeria if only Nigerians will allow it be, putting together a combined effort to achieving the highest point of application of farming technologies. 1.5.1 A New Concept; This article is concentrated on the possibilities of the introduction of precision agriculture in Nigeria. Of a truth, there is no such thing as precision farming presently in Nigeria today because all there is are some elements of precision agriculture like the use of sensors and some field monitoring devices to manage crop yield, productivities, variation in soil nutrients and climatic changes as they affect food availabilities. For example in kwara state, yield monitors are been use to monitor the production of selenium production. This practice is been supported by kwara state government as a preferred way of site specific management. Actually, precision agriculture as a new concept In Nigeria if adapted will bring about a sudden transition from traditional farming (as practiced in most parts of Nigeria) to a better and more advanced level of farm variability management. This whole scenario will involve an experience of the term evolutionâ„ ¢ in its entirety. Apart from the self motivation required of Nigerians and monetary support on the part of the Nigeria government, there are other challenges faced by the nation that will militate against the introduction and proper functioning of precision farming in Nigeria. But before we delve into this sub problem proper, lets first take a look into the geography of Nigeria to see if the land his been favored by nature for this effect. 1.5.2 Precision Farming VS Traditional Farming; just like in a football match between Manchester united FC and Chelsea FC, there is absolutely no basis for comparism between both club teams because Chelsea f c is of no match for man u. precision agriculture have in time encompass traditional farming in all ratification. The advent of machine aided implement with precise application of variable technology to the farmland form the basis and justification of precision agriculture. Just as in the game of football, all the department of precision agriculture works more than those of traditional farming also called (which can either be hand-tool or draught- animal farming). also, the variation in quality, quantity and production factor differs a great deal. Never the less, tradition agriculture is the ancestor of precision agriculture and this is the more reason why Nigerians should embrace precision farming and move forward on the field. 1.6.0 GEOGRAPHY OF NIGERIA Nigeria, one-third larger than Texas and the most populous country in Africa, is situated on the Gulf of Guinea in West Africa. Its neighbors are Benin, Niger, Cameroon, and Chad. The lower course of the Niger River flows south through the western part of the country into the Gulf of Guinea. Swamps and mangrove forests border the southern coast; inland are hardwood forests. The first inhabitants of what is now Nigeria were thought to have been the Nok people (500 BC â€Å"c. AD 200). The Kanuri, Hausa, and Fulani peoples subsequently migrated there. Islam was introduced in the 13th century, and the empire of Kanem controlled the area from the end of the 11th century to the 14th. The Fulani Empire ruled the region from the beginning of the 19th century until the British annexed Lagos in 1851 and seized control of the rest of the region by 1886. It formally became the Colony and Protectorate of Nigeria in 1914. Nigeria has two broad belts of vegetation types, namely, the forest and savannah types. There is, however, also the mountain vegetation of the isolated high plateau regions in the central and far eastern parts of the country. Fig.4. a map of Nigeria showing the major towns and cities. The subhumid zone of Nigeria covers 455 000 km2 or approximately half of Nigeria and a third of the zone in West Africa. Typically low in carbon and nitrogen, the soils have a tendency to form hard crusts. They have a poor capacity for retaining nutrients, poor water penetration and shallow water tables, all of which adversely affect cropping potential. Rainfall in the zone ranges from 1000 to 1500 mm, with growing season from 180 to 300 days per year. The zone offers a wide variety of cropping options, but the growing season is invariably punctuated by dry spells. There is high runoff. During the growing season the humidity is conducive to pathogen survival and transmission. In the dry season the vegetation is subject to burning The zone has five vegetation subzones, but the Guinea and derived savanna subzones account for some 90% of the zone. There is good vegetation cover, although it is dominated by varieties suited to impoverished soil conditions. The feed quality of the grasses rises after the onset of the rains, but declines rapidly after they stop and is low for most of the year. The pattern of vegetation and land use form a mosaic of medium to high levels of cultivation, grassland and woodland. Twenty percent of the zone is cultivated, and cultivation is expanding at 4.8% per annum. It is estimated that by the turn of the century 33% will be cultivated. This estimate is well below the former one of 70%. Crop yields cannot be sustained on cleared land for more than 3 years without fertilizer or manure. There are opportunities for introducing forage legumes, but such interventions must be in accord with intricate and well established mixed cropping systems. The bigger the contribution of forage legumes to soil fertility and hence to food crop yields, the better the chances of their adoption. 1.6.1 Vegetation zones in Nigeria; Vegetation, simply defined, is the plant cover of the earth consisting of assemblages of plants. Broadly speaking, the national vegetation over a geographical area is essentially a response to the climate in that area. Nigerias vegetation belts reflect this very close link between vegetation and climate. Hence, the similarity in the west-to-east zonation of both climate and vegetation. With the south to north progressive decline in total rainfall and length of wet season, vegetation belts are demarcated on west-to-east zonation pattern characterized by transitional zones from one belt to another. The forest vegetation zone of Nigeria consists of; 1. Saline water swamp 2. Freshwater swamp 3. Tropical evergreen rainforest. While the savannah vegetation zone of Nigeria consist of; 1. Guinea Savannah 2. Sudan Savannah; and 3. Sahel Savannah. One major characteristic of savannah vegetation is that trees vary in size and density from the Guinea, through the Sudan, to the Sahel Savannah. If all this are as correct as they seem, then nature her self must have specially designed Nigeria as a country in a unique manner, giving her a format that will favor all manner of crop as their production possibility strength varies across the various vegetation zones. Also, the soil type distribution in Nigeria is in a unique format varying from sand to gravel in different parts of the country and this is one reason why the nation is very rich in minerals and natural resources. Putting all this together, it is evident that the Nigeria geography is by no means a factor or an excuse militating against the adoption and growth of precision farming with as its innovative ideas. 1.6.2 Geology More than half of the Nigerian subhumid zone is covered by Pre- to Upper Cambrian basement complex. It includes the oldest rocks known in Nigeria, principally composed of metamorphic and igneous material. Over most of the area underlain by basement complex there is a discontinuous mantle of weathered gneiss and granite, but this is generally thin, with a high clay content, and does not serve as an efficient aquifer. The water tables are shallow and adversely affect crops and cropping potentials at the height of the wet season. The soil tends to form a hard crust after the first rains, effectively preventing penetration of water and seedling emergence. It therefore needs tillage for cropping. Areas with excessively coarse materials, a poor capacity for retaining nutrients due to low cation exchange capacity, and topography exceeding 2-3% slope are normally avoided by farmers. Under the traditional production system long fallow periods are necessary for maintaining soil fertility. 1.6.3 Relief For an area covering half a million square kilometres, the variation in relief within the subhumid zone is limited. Four major relief types can be identified: The Niger-Benue trough is a Y-shaped lowland area which divides the subhumid zone into three parts. It has been deeply dissected by erosion into tabular hills separated by river valleys. The Niger section is especially rugged. The upland areas north of the Niger-Benue trough, and west of the Niger river, are generally undulating and strongly marked by inselbergs. The north-central plateau is made up of two different platforms the high plains of Hausaland, which at an average height of 600 m a.s.l form the first step, and the Jos Plateau at an elevation of between 1000 and 1800 m forming the second step. The latter falls outside the subhumid zone. The area south of the Benue and east of the Niger, extending eastwards as far as 9?30E, consists of the lowland Cross River plains, east of Enugu, which show outcrops of limestone and shales whereas the relief in general is gentle; and the scarplands west of Enugu, which are made up of the Udi and Awka-Orlu plateaux. 1.6.4 Sunshine and radiation The maximum seasonal variation in day length in Nigeria is 1 hour and 45 minutes. This variation is sufficient to cause differences in the performance of crops sensitive to photoperiodism. The mean annual number of hours of sunshine increases progressively to the northeast. The daily mean duration of sunshine in July, at the height of the rainy season, is greater in the north than in the south, where the cloud cover is more constant. The same pattern is observed in January, when there is a general lack of cloud cover in the north, but due to humid air from the Gulf of Guinea cloudiness may be expected in the south. This results in a marked zonal pattern when the whole of Nigeria is considered. The northern part of the subhumid zone stands out as having the highest national values of net radiation. Further to the north, outside the zone, surface albedo is higher, reducing net received radiation. 1.6.5 Rainfall Most of the Nigerian subhumid zone lies between the 1000 mm and 1500 mm isohyets, offering a wide choice of crop options. Rainfall is governed by the annual passage of the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), the meeting point of a dry northeastern low-pressure air mass and a moist southwestern high-pressure air mass. The northeastern movement of the ITCZ and the rain-bearing winds that accompany it mark the onset of the rainy season. Its southwestward movement and the accompanying harmattan winds mark the beginning of the dry season. Annual rainfall and its reliability decrease from the south northwards. The northern part of the zone has unimodal rainfall distribution in which rains increase in frequency and amount, beginning in May and peaking in August. In the southern part the rainfall pattern is bimodal, the first peak occurring in June-July, and the second in September, with August relatively dry. Variations in annual rainfall make it difficult to draw a strict geographical boundary between these two distribution patterns. Much of the subhumid zone is transitional between unimodal and bimodal rainfall distribution. The rains are expected to reach the southern boundary of the subhumid zone at the beginning of March, and the northern boundary 2 months later (Walter, 1968). At the northern boundary the rainy season normally ends in early October, and at the southern boundary 6 weeks later. The expected duration of the wet season in the subhumid zone thus ranges from 5 months in the north to more than 8 months in the south. Nevertheless the season (April to October) is invariably punctuated by dry spells, the length of which varies from a few days to a few weeks. Evapotranspiration exceeds rainfall north of latitude 7? °30N (Kowal and Knabe, 1972), although almost everywhere in the zone there appears to be a period of water surplus in the year when rainfall exceeds evapotranspiration. Rainfall is usually torrential, 25 to 50 mm or more often falling within 1 hour. Measurement of infiltration or rainfall acceptance on a ferruginous soil type using catchment gauges gave an average ultimate infiltration of 24 mm/hour. Rainfall exceeding this rate can cause serious erosion and runoff. High humidity and concentrated rainfall during the growing season are conducive to pathogen survival and transmission. The dry season, on the other hand, is severe and the vegetation becomes parched and easily combustible. 1.6.6 Major soil types Ferruginous tropical soils cover approximately half the Nigerian subhumid zone. These soils are generally characterized by a sandy surface horizon overlying a weakly structured clay accumulation. Their base-exchange capacity is low, but their base saturation and pH values are relatively high. They have high natural fertility, and FAO (1966) rates them as having good potential. However, under traditional management practices ferruginous tropical soils are of low productivity, are sensitive to erosion and have low water-holding capacity. The alluvial soils found along the Niger and Benue rivers show light accumulations of organic matter but are often, under traditional management practices, too wet during the rainy season for crops other than rice. Under improved management practices, including irrigation and drainage, these soils have been classified by FAO (1966) as having strong to good potential, depending on their local texture and salt content. The ferralsols that occupy much of the other half of Nigerias subhumid zone are deep, strongly weathered soils of friable consistency. They have a low base-exchange capacity, low pH values and generally low nutrient contents. However, their resistance to erosion and good physical properties make these soils suitable for a wide range of crops. The ferralsols within the subhumid zone are categorized by FAO as soils of low present productivity, but as having medium potential if their management can be improved. The lithosols found in the north-central part of the zone are of local significance only, and have been classified by FAO as being of variable productivity and potential. Under traditional management they are dry for 6 to 8 months of the year. In addition they are shallow, moderately leached with little organic matter, and have a low base-exchange capacity. The vertisols found in a small area west of Yola are difficult to work under traditional management practices. They crack deeply when dry, and have a heavy dark texture when moist. They are therefore of only medium productivity, in spite of being generally high in nutrients. Under improved management practices, FAO classifies these soils as having good potential. The soil properties in ILCAs case study areas are shown in Table 1. Table 1. General soil properties in two ILCA case study areas. Location | pH | Organic C (% | Total N (%) | Available P (ppm) | Ca (Meg/100 g) | Mg (Meg/100 g) | Mn (Meg/100 g) | K (Meg/100 g) | Total acidity | Kurmin Biri | 5.2 | 0.58 | 0.071 | 3.9 | 1.12 | 0.37 | 0.02 | 0.13 | 0.78 | Abet | 5.3 | 0.36 | 0.086 | 1.8 | 1.04 | 0.49 | 0.11 | 0.13 | 0.46 | 1.6.7 Vegetation and land use; The subhumid zone includes five vegetation subzones, excluding those found at high altitude. The Guinea and derived savanna subzones occupy some 90% of the area. The areas of Nigeria where mans influence on the vegetation is greatest lie to the north and south of the subhumid zone, exemplified by conditions in the Sahel and by the diminishing rain forest. Blair-Rains (1968) stated that the existing vegetation in Nigeria in general may bear little resemblance to the original zonal categories, because of the combined effects of human activity: burning, cultivation, tree felling and cattle grazing. Extensive areas of medium to high levels of land-use intensity are found on the northern border of the subhumid zone extending northwards, with the highest cultivation density being associated with major towns. The same pattern is found on the southern border, around Enugu, and southwards, where the proportion of land cultivated reaches its highest, at 25%. The land in between these two areas falls within the subhumid zone, where cultivation declines to some 17%. Here the pattern of vegetation and land use can best be described as a mosaic of varying levels of cultivation, grassland and woodland. An interconnecting patchwork of more intense cultivation links the northern and southern cultivated regions of Nigeria, through a broad belt north of Lokoja including Bida, Minna, Abuja, Lafia, Shendam, Kafanchan, the Jos Plateau, Kaduna and Saminaka. In this belt, cultivation reaches a peak of 35%. To the west and east of it, cultivated areas are generally more scattered (10%) with woodland tending to predominate. 1.6.8 Distribution of cultivation Bourn and Milligan (1983) estimated 20% of the Nigerian subhumid zone to be under cultivation. The overall distribution of this farmland, and hence the intensity of land use, are represented by the three-dimensional surface shown in Figure 1, in which the proportion of land under cultivation is indicated by apparent height. As already suggested by the side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) vegetation and land-use map, cultivation was found to be unevenly distributed within the subhumid zone, being concentrated in a series of semi-isolated peaks of high-intensity land use, surrounded by areas of relatively low cultivation. However, an important feature indicated in Figure 1 but not evident on the SLAR map is that cultivation is taking place throughout the surveyed area, albeit at very low levels in the more western areas and to the southeast. Putt et al (1980) have demonstrated a rapid rate of agricultural expansion, associated with human population increase, both within and outside the subhumid zone. In the Lafia region, for example, comparative airphoto-interpretation indicated that cultivation was expanding at an annual rate of 4.8%. Assuming continued expansion at that rate (plus or minus 1%) and an estimated 20% of the zone to be cultivated at present, Figure 2 projects the increasing proportion likely to be under cultivation to the turn of the century. Even the higher estimate of 33.1% under cultivation is very much below the previous estimate of 70% for the zone as a whole (ILCA, 1979). Since approximately one third of the West African sub humid zone is in Nigeria, the figure of 70% would appear to be an overestimate. Fig.5. showing the distribution of cultivation 1.6.9 Forage resources; The herbaceous cover of the subhumid zone consists mainly of annual grasses, with a very low percentage of native legumes. Seasonal changes in herbage quality are primarily due more to changes in plant development than to climatic conditions per se. The C4 photosynthetic pathways in grasses promote a rapid accumulation of structural components, resulting in dilution of nutrients such as N and P in the tissue. Legumes on the other hand, exhibit a less efficient C3 photosynthetic pathway and are independent of soil N. which is secured through biological fixation in the root nodules. Legumes are therefore usually higher in protein and minerals and have higher dry matter (DM) digestibility and voluntary intake by animals than do grasses at similar stages of growth. Growing forage legumes should thus provide a means of overcoming the protein deficiency of the grasses which dominate natural feed supplies. 1.6.10Forage productivity; 1.6.10.1 Measurement Land-use patterns affect the productivity of natural forage. Because of its favourable rainfall the subhumid zone is also likely to be increasingly utilized for cropping wherever edaphic and other conditions are favourable. Forage productivity measurements were carried out in two environments where pastoralists are settling: 1. An intensive arable farming area (Abet). 2. An area reserved by the state for grazing (Kurmin Biri Kachia). An inventory, and the frequency, of existing flora in the herbaceous cover were compiled by using line transects. A number of transects were read in three distinct ecological niches in each study area. Potential yield of the herbaceous strata of the three ecological subdivisions was estimated from five samples of 1 m2 each, clipped to ground level at the beginning and end of the rains, within a 5 x 5 m enclosed area protected from livestock throughout the growing season. Monthly forage production and botanical composition were also estimated from 1 m2 samples, clipped to the ground within similar enclosures as above, but moved randomly after each monthly clipping. Weight difference or DM disappearance between clipped samples from within and outside the enclosures was assumed to have been grazed by livestock during that month. Cut samples, hand-separated into grass and non-grass (forb), were taken, dried and analysed for crude protein (CP) and DM digestibility. Data collected from the three ecological subdivisions were pooled to construct a generalized pattern of forage production in the subhumid zone (Figures 3 and 4). One season of uninterrupted growth of the herbaceous stratum in a burnt area in the subhumid zone produced a DM yield of 2250 kg on shallow, ferruginous soils. Fadama (lowland) soils, with deep hydromorphology, tend to support higher DM productivity up to 5 tonnes in one growing season (Table 2). On this soil type forage growth is prolonged by residual moisture long after the rains have ceased (Figure 5). Fig.6 Table 2. One seasons DM production (kg/ha)a/ of the herbaceous layer in different eco-subsystems in two study areas of the subhumid zone of Nigeria. | Fadama | Woodland | Scrubland | Riverine | Kurmin Biri | 3754 | 1758 | 2251 | 2156 | Abet | 4922 | | 2185 | 1940 | a/ Uninterrupted growth. Herbage growth and production varies seasonally, and the maximum herbaceous biomass on offer is attained between August-September (Figures 3 and 4). Seasonality of production also affects non-graminoid components, and their proportion in the total biomass is higher at the beginning of the rainy season (Table 3). Non-graminaceous types are insignificant in the herbaceous layer, especially in burnt areas. Productivity of the herbaceous cover also varies between years. Herbage produced in the fadama at Abet was about 1 tonne higher in 1981 when the area received 167 mm more rain than the previous year. Both seasonal and species differences contribute to changes in forage quality. During their early development grasses increase in protein content. Where conditions are favourable, the release of soil nitrogen early in the growing season may increase their CP to 9%. But once the rains are over CP content declines rapidly, and since the main bulk of forage on offer is grass, the overall nutritive value of the herbaceous cover in terms of protein is low for most of the year. Table 3. Botanical composition of the herbaceous layer of two ILCA case study areas in the subhumid zone of Nigeria (kg/ha). Study area/Months | Grass | Forb | Total | % Forb | Kurmin Biri | January | 612 | | 612 | | February | 504 | | 504 | | March | 144 | 76 | 220 | 34 | April | 288 | 172 | 460 | 37 | May | 714 | 206 | 920 | 22 | June | 1573 | 301 | 1874 | 16 | July | 1799 | 368 | 2162 | 17 | August | 2298 | 431 | 2729 | 16 | September | 2380 | 437 | 2817 | 18 | October | 1980 | 386 | 2366 | 16 | November | 1200 | 285 | 1485 | 19 | December | 826 | 165 | 991 | 20 | Abet | January | 1382 | | 1382 | | February | 322 | | 322 | | March | 290 | | 290 | | April | 518 | 93 | 611 | 15 | May | 910 | 203 | 1113 | 18 | June | 1502 | 328 | 1830 | 18 | July | 2193 | 166 | 2359 | 7 | August | 2811 | 189 | 3000 | 6 | September | 3094 | 226 | 3320 | 7 | October | 2729 | 218 | 2947 | 7 | November | 2688 | 163 | 2851 | 6 | December | 2212 | 94 | 2306 | 4 | The digestibility of grass is low throughout the year (Figures 3 and 4). It exceeds 40% for only 4 months during the growing season, when the tissues are tender. Digestibility changes closely follow the level of protein in the tissue (Figure 6). This correlation highlights the importance of increasing protein levels in the forage. Fig. 7 Livestock, through selective grazing, tend to consume a better quality diet than average protein and digestibility levels would suggest. Analyses of grab samples collected by following animals showed higher protein content and digestibility throughout the year (Figure 7). The overall quality of forage from a burnt area was also higher. Burning as early as October-November increased the quality of regrown forage, but the bulk left at the end of the growing season was very low in quality and therefore less utilized by livestock, which prefer the new flush of shoots induced by burning (Figures 3 and 4). fig. 8. Indications are that forage utilization in more intensively farmed areas is higher than in other areas, possibly because of the tendency of pastoralists to settle near arable farmers. 1.6.11Forage composition and availability The sub humid zone has good ground vegetative cover. Empty spaces in any area account for 8 to 17%, depending on the type of soil, available moisture and the level of land use. Grasses make up about 62 to 82% of the total herbaceous forage. Leguminous species are very low. Other short-growing dicots, associated with grass, make up about 10 to 20% of herbaceous cover (Table 4). Table 4. Composition of the herbaceous cover of three eco-subsystems of the subhumid zone (%). | Eco-subsystem | Plant cover | Fadama | Scrubland | Riverine | Total plant cover | 92.1 | 83.7 | 83.2 | Grass | 82.0 | 64.2 | 62.3 | Legumes | 0.7 | 4.4 | 1.4 | Others | 9.4 | 15.1 | 19.5 | On the basis of percentage frequency, Rattray (1960) used a given grass genus that emerged as the dominating type to designate a particular climatic zone. Accordingly, the subhumid zone of West Africa could be divided into three belts that cross the south-north axis: the Pennisetum, Hyparrhenia and Andropogon belts. These dominant species have given way to others over the years, doubtless as a result of human influence. The graminoid types in both the ILCA study areas are dominated by Loudetia simplex, which is a tufted perennial, suggesting impoverished soil conditions (Table 5). Table 5. Frequency distribution of the major grasses in the herbaceous cover of the Kachia Grazing Reserve. Grasses | Occurrence (%) | Andropogon spp. | 6.2 | Brachiaria spp. | 8.3 | Digitaria spp. | 0.8 | Hyparrhenia spp. | 11.4 | Loudetia spp. | 40.7 | Panicum spp. | 0.8 | Paspalum spp. | 1.4 | Setaria spp. | 0.6 | 1.6.12Forage constraints and interventions 1.6.12.1Cropland Land cleared and prepared for cropping has an unprotected surface and therefore deteriorates rapidly under the impact of the torrential rains typical of the subhumid zone. Clearing increases surface runoff and leaching of nutrients. Moreover, the temperature of an unprotected soil surface tends to be higher, which encourages more rapid decomposition of organic matter than in a soil with a natural vegetative cover. Soil undergoing degradation at such a rate cannot support continuous cropping unless its lost properties are restored in some way. When such a soil is cropped repeatedly, crop yields decline and the capacity of the land to support human life diminishes with time (Table 6). Experienced farmers are able to predict the time limit for profitable cropping once an area is cleared, which generally ranges from 1 to 3 years unless manure or fertilizer is applied. Table 6. Productivity of sorghum (kg/ha) when cropped for 3 years continuously with or without manure additions (Kurmin Biri, 1981-1983)a/. ?   | Year | | 1981 | 1982 | 1983b/ | Without animal manure | | | | | Grain yield | 858 | 690 | 267 | | Crop residue | 4330 | 3740 | 2133 | With animal manure | | | | | Grain yield | | 1352 | 933 | | Crop residue | | 5710 | 4000 | Each replicate in the trial was divided into two, and 20 to 30 animals were confined for 5 days on one half, prior to land preparation in 1982 and 1983. b/ In 1983 there was a very short wet season compared with previous years. Soil fertility is traditionally restored by fallowing. The length of time the soil is rested after cropping is generally a function of population pressure. Where population is low, rest periods between cultivated phases may be prolonged, resulting in a low cropping index. In this system a farmer has to clear a new area for cultivation each time he abandons the old one. Soil restoration is left to take a natural but prolonged course with no inputs from the farmer. Areas with a low cropping index can provide reasonably well regenerated land whenever this is required by farmers, Higher population levels make prolonged fallow periods less feasible. Farmers are obliged to return to a previously cropped area much sooner. Incomplete recovery then has to be compensated by additional inputs to make the soil productive. The return of ash, household sweepings, night soil and, of course, fertilizers to the land are some of the measures used. For the farmers in parts of Nigerias sub humid zone, access to manure plays a very significant role in the maintenance of soil fertility with or without short rest periods. Manure allows intensive cropping and hence higher human support capacity per unit area of land. Crop and livestock production are commonly carried out by ethnically separate communities, although mixed farming is increasing in Nigeria. Fulani pastoralists prefer to settle in the vicinity of cereal farmers, who thus have access to manure even if they do not own livestock themselves. Animals can also be used for traction and transport, besides being a source of much needed protein. For all the contributions of livestock, the crop sector at the moment tends to offer only crop residues and unimproved fallows in return. Although valuable to livestock early in the dry season (Paper 14), crop residues alone are inadequate to meet the nutritional demands of animals. Growing cereal crops and forage legumes in a mixture is a recent concept in African agriculture. Both components in the mixture require a different production emphasis (grain from cereals and hence emphasis on the reproductive phase, but herbage from legumes, and hence emphasis on the vegetative stage). The agronomic requirements of a cereal/forage crop mixture differ from those of other conventional crop mixtures. Research carried out by ILCA in the past 3 years indicates that forage legumes can be incorporated into existing cropping systems by simple adjustments of sowing time, plant densities or planting sequences. These adjustments improve the nutritive value of crop residues and hence the economic returns per unit area of land. Mixed cropping is the basic farming practice in the sub humid zone of Nigeria. Sorghum is the principal crop and predominates in the different crop mixtures. Most commonly, it is intercropped with soybean and/or maize, but various other crops, such as groundnut, cowpea, millet, and okra, also feature. Farmers reasons for growing a mixture of crops are to minimize risk, spread labour inputs, and reduce disease problems (Evans, 1960; Norman, 1974). These advantages outweigh the benefits of sole cropping, and mixed cropping will doubtlessly remain the standard practice in the sub humid zone for the foreseeable future. Yield advantages in mixed as compared to sole cropping are also common when the component crops complement each other. This happens when their growth patterns differ in time, so that each crop makes its major demands on resources at different times (Wiley, 1979). It will be possible to incorporate forage legumes into crop mixtures only if appropriate adjustments can be made to cropping patterns. These adjustments should not be too far removed from the existing practices if they are to be adopted easily by the farmers. 1.6.12.2Rangeland Natural forage provides the cheapest source of nutrients for ruminants, but the land on which it grows does not often have a high capacity for biomass production. The deflected or disclimax vegetations typical of such land are also likely to increase with the spread of human activity into areas which are as yet underutilized. These areas will not revert back to climax floral associations whilst under continued pressure from man and stock. Livestock grazing natural rangeland derive most of their feed from grasses, with browse becoming increasingly important (but never dominant) as the dry season progresses. High costs and the communal ownership of rangeland preclude large-scale pasture development in Nigerias subhumid zone. Unrestricted access and widespread burning have so far frustrated conventional range management strategies. Small units of sown forage might nevertheless be respected on private property just as cereal crops are. The Fulani in the ILCA case study areas have traditionally sown fonio (Digitaria exilis) on areas grazed and trodden by cattle. This technique can be adapted to provide the labour required for legume establishment. Small units are probably a safer investment than large ones, owing to the risk of fire. 2.0 CHALLENGES Now, letâ„ ¢s take a look at the various potential challenges militating against the practice of sustainable precision farming in Nigeria. This set backs are numerously as large as the nation herself but can be grouped into various broad classes as discussed below; 2.1Socio-psychological challenges: being the most critical among the various problems faced by not only precision agriculture but by farming in general, socio-psychology talks about the mind- set of the people about a given concept. In Nigeria today, farming is been perceive as a dirty job since the advent of the so called petroleum which is seen as a white collar job (office job) and as taken over the consciousness of the people. Also, people radar work in an air-conditioning office and receive a low income than aspiring for a better economy in the farming sector. Food scarcity is attaining its climax as hunger, death, and diseases as taking over the peace and unity of the states yet we still wallow in in-depth ignorance. Also, looking at the name farmingâ„ ¢ which is the mother name of agricultureâ„ ¢ has been neglected just for the reason of acceptance by the ignorant nation. In most learning institutions in Nigeria, names have been changed from agricultural engineering to b iological engineering, bioresources engineering, and etcetera for the senseless reason of rebranding. We talk about enlightening the nation but yet we live in the shadows of our fear for a world full of politics. We bear a name national association of agricultural engineer (NIAE)â„ ¢ yet we allow the chuckles of fear obtain the better part of us without considering properly what fate in the future have for us. There is no crime on becoming the vibrant minorities were the voice of the people is to be heard and acknowledge for his stronger will and love for his mother land. If proper precautions are not taken, the name agricultural engineersâ„ ¢ will be erased from the pages of history. The economy of Nigeria historically was based on agriculture, and about 70% of the workforce is still engaged in farming (largely of a subsistence type). The chief crops are cocoa, peanuts, palm oil, corn, rice, sorghum, millet, soybeans, cassava, yams, and rubber. In addition, cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are raised. But nowadays, Petroleum is the leading mineral produced in Nigeria and provides about 95% of foreign exchange earnings and the majority of government revenues. With oil as a basic source of income for the nation, the government as loosed interest in the farming and everything that concerns the agricultural sector. Now what will be the fate of precision farming in a country where the government pays little or no interest in agriculture 2.2Land tenure system: land ownership and land fragmentization is yet another common factor militating against commercialization in the farming sector. Some may say that commercial farming neutralizes land fragmentization but taking a critical look at the subject matter, they are both linked up one way or the other. Taking for an instance a commercial farmer pledging for a land from a community man having six kid and he is willing to loan the land to the farmer for a period of time but with the permission of his children. If three of the children refuse to loan their portion of the land for some individual reasons, then land fragmentization has directly or indirectly affected agriculture commercialization. Also, land ownership by communities which can only be use by community members as created a restriction for aspiring alien precision farmers their by militating against precision agriculture in such areas of promising yield. 2.3 Technological awareness: Nigeria technology growth is on a creeping motion yet it is regarded as one of the fastest growing technological economy in Africa. Since the official lunching of the GSM device on the 6th of October 2001, there have been series of improvement in the technological sector but Nigerians believe that the best is yet to come. 2.4Infrastructural facilities and basic amenities: when talking about infrastructural facilities and basic amenities as they affect precision farming, it covers the application of precision farming technologies and their variations in time. The first step to be put into consideration to getting started with a full-time precision agriculture after the acquisition of land is the construction of a base centre for data collection, storage, and information command dissemination. This brings us to the challenges militating against the introduction of precision farming in Nigeria. The cost of building a standard base centre in Nigeria is very expensive as it involves the use of un-common and expensive technologies. The various precision technologies are been discussed in detail by Okwudiuche F.O. (2010). Also, the basic amenities required for the proper functioning of precision farming are practically not available in the country. This is a basic set back in the introduction of precision fa rming in the country. These basic amenities include electricity, road, water, and precision facilities which are the function of the government to provide the country with. Not to talk about the issue of electricity which has become outrageous. The Nigeria road is nothing to write home about and that of the scarcity of a natural resource as free as water is the most disgraceful of it all. Here, it is evident that the introduction of precision farming in Nigeria means rebranding Nigeria for the better, as it affects basically all aspects of living of the people. Also, precision machines are very expensive to come by especially when they are emerging technologies. There are also some factors to be considered when choosing a precision machine which include the workability of the machine involving weather as a factor in the machine production. Some machines are design to suite into the weather conditions which can be another factor in the design mechanism of a precision machine in other for it to be durable and work precisely. For instance, in the design of a sensors and telemetry for the collection and transmission of data from to the base centre, the weather condition of the region must be put into consideration because the use of sensors and t